[1] "Experience with certain types of media reduces the transfer deficit (Kirkorian & Choi, 2017; Troseth, 2003; Troseth A third account posits that young children lack the symbolic et al., 2007), demonstrating the transfer deficit does not result from a thinking necessary to use symbolic artifacts, such as videos and simple inability for young children to learn from screens."
[2] "For instance, as per Barnett and Ceci’s (2002) principles, learning from media involves shifts in the Two-dimensional (2D) images are perceptually impoverished; modality (resulting in perceptual changes between sources), the that is, perceptual cues on 2D images are often smaller and lack physical context (as children may transfer learning between 3D and 2D features of 3D objects, such as motion parallax or other depth cues objects that are physically manipulated in different ways), and the (Barr & Hayne, 1999; Hipp et al., 2017; McCall et al., 1977)."
[3] "(2017) provided a more comprehensive theory of transfer tactile channels may also be relevant when children are using of learning, considering the role of individual child characteristics touchscreens, and the episodic buffer may also be necessary for 460 BARR AND KIRKORIAN Figure 1 Conceptual Model Representing Cognitive Processes, Individual Child Characteristics, and Task Characteristics Involved in Learning and Transfer From Digital Media This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly."
[4] "Despite a high degree of perceptual similarity and high learning from eBooks and traditional print books have been mixed levels of social engagement between the learning and test context, (e.g., Etta & Kirkorian, 2019; Lauricella et al., 2014; Strouse & children performed more poorly when transferring across dimen- Ganea, 2017) and are often dependent on the design and affordances sions in either direction (2D to 3D or 3D to 2D) than within a single of the eBooks (for reviews, see Bus et al., 2015, 2020; Kucirkova, dimension (2D to 2D or 3D to 3D; Zack et al., 2009)."
[5] "related achievement gaps are evident by the second year of life, long before children enter school, and early interventions to enhance To rigorously evaluate apps in the wild, researchers need to cognitive and language skills are critical to adequately prepare evaluate content, track usage of apps and family media ecology, children for successful school entry (Duncan et al., 2007; Noble and measure learning outcomes."
[6] "Fisch (2000, 2017) proposed that young children may initially learn to discount televised content models of learning from media that centered on media and child as not relevant to the real world following early and repeated characteristics that influence cognitive load, but this model has experience with noninteractive video that looks nothing like the focused on learning from professionally produced educational child’s own environment; thus, a transfer deficit may emerge as a television and videogames for preschool- and elementary school- result of early media experience paired with a lack of symbolic age children rather than the transfer deficit among younger children."
[7] "time course of the transfer deficit appears to be protracted with MODELS OF EARLY LEARNING IN THE DIGITAL WORLD 461 increasing task complexity and has been observed in children Schmidt et al., 2007; Troseth & DeLoache, 1998) measure success older than 3 years (Dickerson et al., 2013; Flynn & Whiten, 2008; or failure in finding an object hidden in a small number of easily Hipp et al., 2017; Kirkorian & Simmering, 2023; Reiß et al., 2019; nameable locations (e.g., under the pillow)."
[8] "children can learn from video chat (Myers et al., 2017), eBooks (Etta & When children are tested for spatial recall on multiple trials using the Kirkorian, 2019; Troseth et al., 2020), and touchscreens (for reviews, same materials, their memory for the current trial may be disrupted see Hipp et al., 2017; Kirkorian, 2018; Kirkorian et al., 2017)."
[9] "Indeed, there is some evidence that apps produce ences in addition to working memory such as vocabulary, inhibitory less flexible mental representations, reducing representational control, and past experience with digital media may also partially flexibility and preventing young children from generalizing to account for differences in learning from digital media (Choi et al., new situations (Aladé et al., 2016; Kirkorian et al., 2016; Schroeder 2018; Courage et al., 2021; Kirkorian & Choi, 2017; Russo-Johnson & Kirkorian, 2016)."
